Explain the ethical significance of the Sermon Essay

The Sermon on the Mount is one of the key sections of the New Testament, in which Jesus builds upon the Decalogue to form the first blueprint of Christian ethics. Jesus was preaching in direct contrast to the Greek philosophy of stoicism, which sought to separate man from his emotions. Emotions, especially love, feature heavily in the Sermon on the Mount. It remains ethically relevant over 2000 years later for many reasons, the first of which is the underlying principles behind it. Jesus did not come to abolish Old Testament law, but to fulfil it. The Jews were trapped in a system of harsh legalism, where obedience was motivated by fear rather than love. The Pharisees made a grand display of holiness by keeping the law, but the Sermon on the Mount teaches that their hearts were empty. Jesus built on the Ten Commandments to create a system ruled by mercy, love and dedication to God. Even if the culture changes the basic ethical principles behind the sermon do not change. It is a moral code that focusses as much on inward moral disposition as it does our external actions: Jenkins wrote, â€Å"inner attention and attitude is crucial. † Even if a typically good action is performed with sinful thought then it becomes immoral. The most important thing to realise about the Sermon on the Mount is that it is impossible for anyone to keep it completely, as it demands perfection. Although they will never be free from sin in this life, Christians use the sermon in order to try and become more like Jesus, who was perfect. The Sermon is all about Christian sanctification. Jesus speaks not only on what Christians should do to be moral, but he also explains why it is important to be ethical in the first place. He states that Christians are the salt and light of the world. Salt is significant because it represents purity, preservation and flavour. Therefore we understand that Christians should maintain a good ethical code in order to set an example to society and to preserve it from total corruption. The image of the light is also key: in the Bible light always symbolises joy and blessing. A light is visible to all, and so the Christian should seek to make Christ visible to all through their actions. A light is also a warning, representing the Christian’s duty to lovingly warn their fellow-men about their sin. Further on in the Sermon Jesus admonishes that, â€Å"If the light then within you is darkness, how great is that darkness! † Furthermore, the Sermon on the Mount gives many specific examples of Christian ethics, the first of which is regarding murder. Jesus equates anger to murder, and speaks of the fires of hell. This is contrary to the contemporary universalist view of Jesus and his death which has led some scholars to claim that when he speaks of hell it is merely metaphorical. Regardless, Jesus is affirming that you cannot be right with God until you are right with your fellow men, which all relates to the salt-and-light reputation of a Christian. Jesus also teaches about adultery and sexual morality. Again he equates the inward sin of lust to the outward sin of adultery. He also declares that marrying a divorced woman counts as adultery, a part of the Sermon that even Christians have begun to disregard. This is contrary to the Old Testament where Moses permitted – but did not command – divorce due to the hard heartedness of the people. The close relationship between a husband and wife mirrors the relationship Christ shares with his Church, which is why sex features so highly in Christian ethics. Love, when fully understood. Is opening oneself to another completely and can succeed only where trust and fidelity are present. Subsequently, another part of the Sermon on the Mount that is ethically significant would be where Jesus deals with how we should relate to other people. The standards set by Jesus are so high it is easy for Christians to look down upon those that are struggling. Jesus, ever a carpenter’s son, uses the metaphor of the speck in your brother’s eye and the plank in your own. We are all sinners and it would be highly hypocritical to judge another when we are also flawed. We never know the whole story about someone and it is impossible to be impartial in our judgement. The Jews were familiar with the concept of loving your neighbour and not judging him, but they did not feel the same about their enemies. Jesus commanded us to show agape love towards our enemies. Such love does not naturally come from the heart, but is instead must be put into action through one’s own will. As Jesus was merciful and forgiving to sinners, so we should be. This is vital to Christian ethics. Another ethical aspect of how we relate to other people is how we treat those who are poorer than us. It is not enough to simply preach to them, but we must take care of their physical needs as well as spiritual. Jesus said, â€Å"Give to him who asks of you, and do not turn away from him who wants to borrow from you. † Charitable giving was a fundamental part of Jewish life, but Jesus added another element: it was only ethical if done with the correct motivation. The Greek word translated as hypocrite in the Bible literally means ‘actor’. This is why Jesus commands us to give in secret, lest we become boastful. Moreover, there is a definite eschatological aspect to the Sermon on the Mount as it draws to a conclusion. This emphasises to the Christian how their ethics are eternally significant and will be considered on the Day of Judgement. Jesus states that few will enter the Kingdom of Heaven and that not all that profess to believe in him as Lord will be saved. He warns of false prophets who will come in sheep’s clothing; in this situation the ethics presented in the Sermon on the Mount are vital so a Christian can identify who is a true believer. We are not saved by works, but they are an important part of our Christian identity. The Sermon on the Mount also has certain evangelical tones throughout. It shows the unbeliever what is required of them if they follow Jesus, and the severe consequences if they do not. Spurgeon wrote of this passage, â€Å"The shepherd best discerns his own sheep, and the Lord, Himself alone knows infallibly them who are His. † To conclude, there are conflicting theories regarding the nature of the Sermon – certain theologians such as Calvin believe it is a compilation of many separate sermons. Others debate technical details, such as whether it was preached on a mount or a plain. However, something that every Christian will agree on is that the Sermon on the Mount is of the upmost important as a foundation for Christian ethics. Stott said, â€Å"The Sermon on the Mount is probably the best-known part of the teaching of Jesus, thought arguably it is the least understood, and certainly it is the least obeyed. †

Review of Literature on Employee Welfare Measures

About Us Our company â€Å"Arun Textiles† was started in the year 1989. With our constant endeavour and the passion to present excellent quality and cost-effective products to our clients, â€Å"Arun Clothing Company† was started in 1992. In this unit, we have around 300 machines with a capacity to produce 400,000 pieces per month. As part of expanding plan, we started â€Å"Arun Spinning Mills (p) Ltd† in 1998 and â€Å"Sakthi Spintex (p) Ltd† in 2011 overall capacity with 76,000 Spindles. We are a Government recognised â€Å"Two Star Export House† from the year 1995 and from 1998 onwards we have been ISO 9001:2000 accredited firm by Det Norske Veritas, Netherlands. As we have got our own manufacturing facilities like – Spinning, Weaving and Knitting, we can guarantee for excellent quality, cost-effective and prompt delivery. We manufacture the products according to our customers’ specifications and requirements and all our products are exported to Europe and USA. While selling our existing products, we also look for new opportunities and products which can be done. Our group turnover is around US$ 20 Million and employing around 2000 people. BOARD OF DIRECTORS P. SUBBARAMAN| MANAGING DIRECTOR| P. SUNDARARAJAN| DIRECTOR (PURCHASE & ADMIN)| P. VIJAYAKUMAR| DIRECTOR (FINANCE)| S. ARUNKUMAR| DIRECTOR| S. SAKTHIRANI| DIRECTOR| V. KARTHICK| DIRECTOR| Quality Policy ARUN TEXTILES GROUP are committed to Enhance customer satisfaction by manufacturing and delivering customer specified products on time, every time. Continually strive to improve our Quality Management System through active involvement of all our employees. – Managing Director  © All Rights Reserved – Arun Textiles

Minimum of Two Suggests That Family Can Be Both a Blessing and a Curse

In Tim Winton’s collection of short stories, ‘Minimum of Two’, family is a major, recurring theme. Winton displays his interest in exploring the idea of family within each story differently, containing the positive and negative influence that family has on the actions and emotions of the Nilsam family and his alternative protagonists. In ‘Distant Lands’, he deals with the feeling of obligation towards and the traditional expectations of family whilst in ‘The Water Was Dark’ the focus is on a need to separate oneself from negative family completely. Laps’ focuses on how family can help you move on from her past. Winton has a strong belief that family shapes the kind of person one becomes, regardless of whether that is a good, or bad natured person. Within the short story ‘Distant Lands’, although it is portrayed subtly, family plays an important role. We are told of Fat Maz’s parents; her mother, who sits in the family shop for the majority of her day, emitting ‘dull thudding’ sounds from the register and Maz’s father, who is portrayed as a hot headed, intimidating individual. As Winton goes on to display Maz’s character, which contains attributes the likes of reserved, self-conscious yet quietly ambitious, we are made to create a link between Maz’s persona and her parents, that of which one is silent and dismal and the other unapproachable, and the realization that it was the impact of her family that has built the aspects her character by failing to restore her confidence and paying little to no attention of whether Maz had her own ambitions. This contributes to her overall quietness. The Water Was Dark’ has it’s protagonist, ‘the girl’, who is struggling to escape from the negativity of her mother. The girl lists her mother’s many faults bitterly and her mother’s poor decisions’ impact show heavily as we read in to the girl’s thoughts. The girl has no actual stability that she feels in her life and she is angry at her mother because her mother is to be blamed. She actually says in many a sense that her life would collectively improve if her mother rid herself of the poisonous things in her life, like drinking and being isolated. Basically, the state of the girl’s family is so ruined that she herself becomes destructive. Despite the lack of encouragement, in ‘Distant Lands’ Maz’s parents actually follow the traditional expectations associated with family. They give Maz a roof over a head and a secure, paying job in a small town. It is not what Maz wants however it is a safe, stable environment and so Maz feels a sense of debt towards her family. ‘Laps’ revolves around Queenie and her family. Queenie’s daughter Dot provides a great contrast in regards to most of the adolescents Winton writes. She is not only in a secure and stabile lifestyle, but she is content. It could be argued that this is because she is younger than other characters explored by Winton however given that Queenie and Cleve are in a healthy marriage and they openly show their pride, care and love towards their daughter, it is clear that Dot will be provided with a more normal, happy life. Every Family is different from the other. Certain are functional and certain are falling apart at the seams. The short stories of Minimum of Two explore this through different experiences and circumstances which directly reflect on how the characters are portrayed. Family is a huge aspect of a person’s identity. Throughout the stories, Winton gives us examples of how the support and love of family are required for one to be fully satisfied with life and truly be aware of their identity. The absence of this supportive, healthy family will most likely outcome in a never-ending negativity for the members within that family. In most instances, the impact of family can either act as a curse that increases one’s isolation and negativity or a blessing that provides a sense of belonging and contentment, not only with the family itself but also with the broader world. Mainly, the stories of Minimum of Two suggest that regardless of being moral or immoral, family shapes oneself.

Argument research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Argument research - Essay Example Decades back, the female workers were considered not good for the family lives, because according to men’s perception, woman is only for household working and thus she should not work outside the boundary of her home. Now this perception is a little bit changed. Women are working in many of the fields but still facing a biased behavior in the financial matters, as men are receiving more wages than women. Men are receiving more wages as compare to women, even when both of them have same qualifications and working in the same position. In addition, this is not confined to any particular society or country rather everywhere women are facing this similar situation. Whether we talk about western countries or the eastern ones, the wage gap between the men and the women exists. There is always a discussion on this topic of biased behavior regarding wages among men and women. Many of the researchers work on the topic of unequal pay and wages for the females. Different research studies have clearly shown the reason and factors, which actually create a pay gap between the males and the females. However, the positive thing is that now in the 21st century women are more powerful to fight for their rights. They can stand up for receiving their rights and an equal wage system is their true right. This strength is only possible because of the education and knowledge level in the females (Hughes 631). According to some of the education experts’ research analysis education always creates awareness in the human beings. In addition, because of this education women are now powerful regarding their fight for rights. The reason for increase in the pay system can be the changing role of women in the labor work force. In the past decades the women were not involved in the hard works but now there is no single field where women are not working and giving their best. Earlier it was considered that women may not take any

Critically Engange with the concept of Leadership in the hospitality Essay

Critically Engange with the concept of Leadership in the hospitality Industry. Evaluate and critically assess the theory and pra - Essay Example ..4 3.2 Transformational†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..5 3.3 Transactional†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦....5 3.4 Issues †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..5 3.4.1 Corporate vision and mission†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..5 3.4.2 Cultural diversity†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦....6 3.4.3 Nurturing and delegation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 3.4.4 Teamwork†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.7 3.5 Impacts†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.7 3.5.1 Unity of working teams†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 3.5.2 Setting organizational tone, strategy and right culture†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.8 3.5.3 Improved individual employee personal performance†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦8 4. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 5. ... It is one of the most dynamic industries across the globe in the modern day context with so much differentiation of products and embracing varying leadership styles in order to cope with the ever-increasing pressure in competition. To be more specific, it is a common observation of new and emergent organizations as well as dominant players within the industry to adopt different types of leadership styles in order to be more relevant within the industry and compete more favorably. It is in this understanding that this paper intends to critically analyze the leadership style upheld by the Hilton global hotel with special attention to the leadership of the serving CEO, Christopher J Nassetta. 2. Introduction Leadership is the art of imparting influence to people and making them willingly cooperate towards realizing an organizations purpose. In our analysis, Christopher, the CEO to Hilton Hotels exhibits great aspects of a leader and practices a range of leadership styles. In particular, he practices strategic leadership styles which entails the capacity of a leader to shape an organization’s decisions, deliver high value over time through not only his/her own efforts but by inspiring and guiding other people in the organization too (Wong, 2003, p. v). He also shows transactional leadership traits which are explained through the ‘exchange’ aspect that he cultivates between the leaders and the subordinates. Besides, Christopher practices transformational leadership styles, which shows high level of responsibility in creation of interactions and motivations (emotional attachment) within the leadership structure of an organization. 3. Discussion There are some basic aspects of a leader, which are used to explain and describe strategic leadership. These are

Misdiagnosis Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Misdiagnosis - Coursework Example Furthermore, it caused serious harm to the patient; thus, he should be punished for it. If the doctor knew that he was already overworked and therefore not in the best condition to attend to a patient, he should have assigned the case to another doctor instead of forcing himself to attend to the patient. He should have used his better judgment that something wrong might happen if he insists on attending to the patient. 3. Aside from the medical profession, another profession that can be held liable for negligence is a pilot (presumably he survives the crash) who knew that he was not feeling well when he flew the plane, yet still insisted on flying it which eventually resulted in an airplane crash. It may also be applicable to a captain of a ship who allowed the ship to navigate even if he knew that there was over capacity. A restaurant owner or chef may also be held liable for negligence if it served food which they knew beforehand was no longer fresh or was already contaminated but still served it to their customers. Food manufacturers may also face the same charges if they do not make sure that all the ingredients in the food that they manufacture are safe for human consumption and would have no harmful side effects. 4. If I was a member of a jury hearing a case of negligent homicide against a physician, my only preconception is to determine whether another doctor handling the case would have done the same as the physician being indicted. Also, I would like to know if the doctor has a tinge of doubt on his diagnosis and if he did, did he ask the opinions of other experts in the field. Another consideration is whether the doctor has the necessary competence and qualification to diagnose the patient and if he does not possess such skills, was the patient aware of this. Michon, K. (n.d.). Medical malpractice: Misdiagnosis and delayed diagnosis.

Risk Management Assessment Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Risk Management Assessment Summary - Essay Example Tatum (2011) notes that â€Å"Risk management is a logical process or approach that seeks to eliminate or at least minimize the level of risk associated with a business operation.† In the health sector, there are a couple of risks that can be pointed out off hand. Miller (2011) quotes the Joint Commission in-charge of the certification of healthcare organizations in the United States. The commission identifies types of risks in the healthcare industry and also defines risk management in the health care industry as â€Å"clinical and administrative activities undertaken to identify, evaluate, and reduce the risk of injury to patients, staff, and visitors and the risk of loss to the organization itself." In relation to the target set by the hospital, undertaking risk management at Trinity Hospital would therefore mean taking steps to identify all possible risks, while putting in place structures to critically evaluate the risks and coming out with prompt solutions on how to red uce the effect of the risks. At Trinity Hospital, three common risks can be pointed to. These risks have been with the hospital for long and needs to be curtailed if the hospital is really keen with achieving its set target of improving healthcare delivery and increasing number of patients it attends to. The three risks are deaths during medical operation, employee turnover and financial meltdown. These three risks are transversal meaning they cut across all spheres of the hospital’s management. It is not one sided but then has to do with the activities and roles played by almost every employee and management member of the hospital. The risk of deaths during medical operations affects the organizations badly in the sense that it gives a very bad image of the hospital in the sight of the public, seeking for improved healthcare. In the hospital’s bid to reach out to more patients in the

The Power of Advertising in Modern Society Essay

The Power of Advertising in Modern Society - Essay Example The power of advertisements is immediately linked to their use of imagery and their sponsorship of commercial media. While the majority express a dismissive attitude towards advertisements and claim to be unaffected by them, available figures support an alternate reality. Steinberg emphasises this point when highlighting the financial resources which companies set aside for advertisements per season. In 2008, 30-second Super Bowl ads sold for $3 million (para 1). As exorbitant as this figure may sound, every single ad spot was sold and networks were pressured to provide more advertising slots. The reason, as Steinberg explains, is that advertising makes financial sense. The Super Bowl, for example, is viewed by almost 100 million people across the United States, with the implication being that Super Bowl ads give companies the opportunity to deliver their commercial message to 100 million people in just 30 seconds (Steinberg, para 6-8). Within the context of the stated, the $3 million figure is an investment in the popularisation of a brand/product and an attempt to persuade 100 million people to, at least, consider purchase. Accordingly, while most claim that they are unaffected by advertisements, the sums which companies invest in the purchase of prime-time advertisement spots tells a very different story. The power of advertisements does not only derive from their primetime placement but from their use of imagery. ... 185-186). For example, the images which Calvin Klein employs in its jeans ads are not just selected for the purpose of depicting the product but of portraying all that which may potentially be associated with the product. This includes sex appeal, charisma and an aura of success and popularity, among others. The point here is that the power of an advertisement and its ability to attract the attention of consumers is almost entirely dependant upon its use and selection of visuals. The fact that advertisements draw their power from images, rather than words, maximises their appeal and potential for attraction. As may be inferred from Moeller's analysis of the importance of imagery, the power of images lies in that they are open to interpretation and that viewers can, to an extent, impose their on meanings and values upon them (para 5-9). Unlike words where meaning is explicitly state, leaving little for the imposition of subjective interpretations, images provide viewers with the freedom to impose their own meaning and interpretations upon them. The implication here is that visuals can be personalized. Hence, the power of ads does not simply derive from the images which they use but from the fact that viewers have the freedom to impose personal meanings upon these images. Whether or not people choose to openly admit it, ads wield power. The imagery which they use influences our perceptions and their very presence provides us with media content. As Steve Hall explains, the production of media content is very costly and corporations only undertake the expenses involved for the purposes of profiting. Insofar as television content is concerned, whether sporting events or popular serials, advertisements cover the costs and generate the profits

The Office Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Office - Movie Review Example The Office is a documentary on the day-to-day undertakings of the employees the Scranton, Pennsylvania branch of a fictitious firm Dunder-Mifflin Paper Company. The show is presented as a humorous look at the different issues and foolishness that happens in the workplace. The branch is run by the single, middle-aged and boastful Regional Director Michael Scott who also serves as the host in the documentary. With his huge passion for business, Scott sees himself as the "office funnyman, a fountain of business wisdom and his employees' cool friend" (About the Office 4). However, his painstaking effort to be liked by his colleagues is in vain as he only appears pathetic and absurd. Other notable main characters are: Pam Beesly, the office receptionist; Jim Halpert, a sales representative; Dwight Schrute, the assistant to the regional manager; and Ryan Howard, a temporary employee. Economically speaking, opportunity cost is defined as "the cost of something in terms of an opportunity forgone or the most valuable forgone alternative" (Opportunity Costs 1). In The Office it is apparent that Jim Halpert foregoes the opportunity of securing better working alternatives when he continued working for Dunder-Mifflin Paper Company. The economic hegemony of the United States is currently being tain... It is estimated that the budget allocated to the war reaches $1 trillion which could have been used to finance economic and social projects such as livelihood, housing, and education. Thus, the opportunity cost of going to war can be stated as the social and economic benefit which could have been derived from the investments in socio-economic projects. 2. Law of Supply and Demand The issue of downsizing has been recurring in the episodes of the TV show. It should be noted that downsizing stems from the fact that the supply of labor in the economy is much higher than the actual demand requiring some adjustments through employee lay-offs. The same issue is faced by employees in the nation. The trade liberalization has eliminated national boundaries facilitating the mobility of job and investments. Business process outsourcing has become a trend channeling jobs to other countries where the cost of labor is lower like China, India, and Philippines thereby lowering the demand for labor in the United States. Recently, the customer service department of large business organizations like Dell, HP, and IBM has been deployed in these countries lowering the demand for US labor. This movement in demand changes the equilibrium by decreasing supply through downsizing. Works Cited "About the Office." NBC Website. 2007. April 18, 2007 "The Office." Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. 2007. April 18, 2007 "Opportunity Costs." Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. 2007. April 18, 2007

Apple Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Apple Strategy - Essay Example This has been done using the quality employees who they employ. In recruiting the new employees, Apple does not necessarily follow what most companies have been doing. Contrary, Apple looks for great sales persons who have been using their products and have consequently developed a likeness of the same. By doing this, they help differentiate true enthusiasm and the salespersons believe in the products. The company has gone further to invent black cards. This strategy is to be used by their customers whereby they can issue black cards to their employees. The cards have an Apple emblem and they contain some written materials on the sidelines. This card directs the Apple customers to talk to the company. On the rear side of the black card, it recommends the Apple customers to fill in, whereby they indicate, whether they have received good customer service or not. Moreover, the company has also developed an idea of a store within a store. This has been achieved through the setting up of Apple shops in big departmental stores and supermarkets such as the Best Buy. They have also placed Apple consultants at this shops whereby they train employees about their brands and all others (Apple Inc., 2010, p.1). For Apple to climb to such heights, the company has developed a distribution and market segment that has overseen the brand name attain global recognition. Through its distribution and marketing segment, the company sells its product throughout the world using online stores, retail stores, direct sales force, third-party wholesalers, resellers, and value-added resellers. The company also sells to consumers, of large-scale and small-scale, and small and medium sized business, creative customers, education, enterprise, and the government (Apple Inc., 2010, p.1). Business Strategies Apple has employed high standard of business strategy, which are followed by all members of the institution. This is done because the company is committed to delivering nothing but the best personal computing, moveable digital music and moveable communication practice to customers, scholars, instructors, commerce, and administration agencies through its groundbreaking hardware, software, peripherals, amenities, and internet offerings. The company’s business level strategies shows the companies unique ability to come up with, and develop the companies own operating system, hardware, application software, and services to deliver its clienteles different products and elucidations with superior ease-of-use, seamless integration, and innovative industrial design (Apple Inc., 2010, p.1). This company believes strongly in the need for continued investments in research and development. The reason is that the development of this will enhance innovativeness in its products and technologies. In the business level strategies, the company considers the use of cost leadership. This is done in order to compete for a wide customer base, which is usually based on its prices. How ever, the products developed by Apple are expensive for moderate people in other countries outside the US. Nevertheless, these prices are based on internal efficiency so that the company can form a margin, which will sustain above average returns and cost to the customer so that customers will purchase Apples products. This happens since the technology sector is standardized whereby if a company fails to achieve certain targets, other rival companies will surpass it. Some of Apples largest competitors are Samsung and HTC. However, there has been a continuous effort to lower the cost to be relative to customers (Apple Inc., 2

Causes of Wrongful Convictions in the United Sates judicial System Research Paper

Causes of Wrongful Convictions in the United Sates judicial System - Research Paper Example shown that wrong convictions happen on daily basis in the US judicial system, with the Bureau of Justice Statistics admitting publicly that about 8% to 12 % of all the state inmates are either factually or actually innocent (Bohm, 2011). Therefore, this research paper is going to explore the issue of wrongful conviction in the USA judicial system, establish the root causes of the problem as well as introduce possible solutions with DNA being the most viable alternative to the problem. Controversial studies have shown that USA has one of the highest numbers of inmates in the world which is said to be roughly 7.1 million people (Free & Ruesink, 2012). Other contentious statistics estimate that about one person in every one hundred adults is an inmate with the ratio dramatically increasing if persons under probation are considered. The country has about 8 percent of prisoners in the federal prisons incarcerated for engaging in violent crimes with about 52 percent inmates being sentenced in state prisons (Free & Ruesink, 2012). It is estimated that about two-thirds of these criminals are rearrested within the first three years after their release with 52 percent of them being incarcerated. The findings of these studies are highly alarming and more precisely because of the high number of innocent persons who were convicted wrongly and imprisoned. However, most people in the country used to hold the presumption that the country’s judicial system is fair and blin d and that no individual is convicted for a crime that he or she did not commit (Tong, Bryant & Horvath, 2009). A number of factors are believed to have attributed to the wrongful conviction of innocent people in the USA with eyewitness misidentification being one of the major causes. Many scholars believe that eyewitness misidentification is the root cause of this prevalent problem in the country. The US judicial system used to rely so much on witness brought forward by eyewitnesses when convicting suspected

Equality, Diversity and inclusion in work with children and young people. Essay Example for Free

Equality, Diversity and inclusion in work with children and young people. Essay 1.1 How does the equality Act 2010 promote equality and diversity? Obtain your schools Equality of opportunity policy. What is its aim? Identify references to action. The Equality Act protects individuals from unfair treatment and promotes a fair more equal society. Equality and diversity is now a ‘limiting judgement’ in Ofsted inspections. This means that if equality measures are not being implemented efficiently, this will restrict the overall inspection grade. As a school, you must not discriminate against a pupil or prospective pupil because of their disability, race, sex, gender reassignment, religion or belief, or sexual orientation. The objectives at Tutshill School are that all children in our school will learn in an environment free from the effects of and without discrimination, and that the working conditions and environment of our staff and volunteers will also be free from discrimination. Tutshill C of E Primary School strives to ensure that the culture and ethos of the school are such that, whatever the heritage and origins of members of the school community, everyone is equally valued and treats one another with respect. Pupils should be provided with the opportunity to experience, understand and celebrate diversity. Tutshill School will adhere to Gloucestershire LEA’s Racial Harassment in Schools – Guidelines and make all new teachers, student teachers and ancillary staff aware of the policy. 1.2 Why is it important to support the rights of all children and young people to participation and equality of access? All children have the right to access all the opportunities which are on offer in the school provision. Each and every pupil has the right to learn and should not be discriminated against for any reason. In order for us to  achieve this we must involve the children and parents in finding out what works well in school and what doesn’t. This should be supported by high quality teaching and learning experience. I believe that involving the children in this process would make the children more confident and feel more valued within school. 1.3 How is cultural diversity valued and promoted in your school? Discuss its importance. Within Tutshill School opportunities are provided for all children to experience others cultures and ethnic backgrounds. This is promoted through literacy lessons. Every term the children I work with have a new topic for example, Greece and The Romans. With each topic they learn about their cultures such as their religion, language and the different foods they eat. The children in year four studied the Romans and did a play for the other children in assembly and also designed a menu for the whole school to try. The Year five class studied Greece and designed and made holiday brochure for display in their class room and also designed a Greek menu for the school to try. This is to ensure that the children understand and value the social and cultural diversity that could be in their own community as well as around the world. Culture can cut across nationalities and faiths and by promoting cultural diversity and the differences of individuals and groups within school will enhance a child ’s learning and promote knowledge and understanding of all pupils. Diverse cultures in schools should be acknowledged and reflected throughout the curriculum. By supporting and encouraging children to understand and accept cultural diversity will also prevent stereotyping and reduce prejudice and discrimination within schools. Most importantly, it will prepare children and young people for numerous changes that will happen in their lives as adults where they will inevitably be involved in mixing with adults of different cultures and backgrounds. Having watched the Teachers’ TV programme ‘Pride and Prejudice’, about Gypsy, Roma and Traveller children, comment on the following. 2.1 What prejudices do these groups face? Gypsy, Roma and Traveller children face many prejudices throughout their lives. They are not considered part of the community that they live in and often come up against racism, stereotyping, discrimination and abuse not only from other children but adults as well. 2.2 What impact does this have on traveller C/YP? The impact that racism, stereotyping and discrimination have on the children is that they fall out of school or are taken out of school at an early age. Majority of traveller children tend to leave school or are taken out of school at the end of primary level as they find the transition into secondary school a difficult one due to other children and teachers bulling them and having little knowledge or understanding of their culture. The remainder of the children do not often make it past year 9. 2.3/2.4 How have schools tackled prejudice to raise attendance and attainment? Schools have tackled these prejudices by increasing other people’s knowledge about these minority groups. For Example: †¢Celebrate their culture. †¢Looking at the history of the travellers. †¢Increasing awareness of their heritage by having day trips to the Romany life centre. †¢Traveller children making a booklet to educate teachers and pupils, about their religion and how and where they live. †¢Showing the pupils a film about travellers about their skills and how they made a living. To raise attendance and attainment schools have been flexible with rules regarding attendance rates and given extra support especially just before SAT’s. The most important thing I feel is that they treated each and every child the same. 3.1 Explain what is meant by ‘inclusion’? Inclusion means to be fully included, to make people feel valued and respected irrespective of ethnicity, gender, disability, culture, age, religion and sexual orientation. It is about giving equal access and opportunities to everyone. 3.2/3.3 Provide 3 or 4 examples of inclusive practices in your classroom/school. During my time at Tutshill School I have witnessed and been part of several inclusive practices. Example 1. Within year 4 we have a student who is Chinese. During the Chinese New-year SL brought in sweets for everyone so we could celebrate the Chinese new-year with her. She then had time to talk to the class about what she did during their celebrations. Example 2. Throughout each classroom and the school there are displays of children’s work. All abilities are displayed, so the children can see and understand that just because their work may not be the neatest or always correct it will still get to be displayed. Example 3. During P.E all children will be included, whether they have a lower ability or any medical issues. The games that they are playing will be adapted if needed to so that every child has the opportunity to participate.

Theories and a biopsychology of addiction

Theories and a biopsychology of addiction The biopsychology of addiction examines the interaction of biological aspects associated with addictive behaviors. The word addiction comes from the Latin verb addicere meaning to enslave (Yucel, Lubman, Solowij, Brewer, 2007). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition-Text Revision identifies drug addiction as a dependence syndrome with essential features of a lack of control over drug use despite significant drug-related problems (Kranzler Li, 2008). The prevalence and problems associated with drug addiction cost an estimated $524 billion a year, including health care, productivity loss, crime, incarceration, and drug enforcement (NIDA, 2009). Advanced research confirms that addiction is a disease because it alters the brain. It shares common attributes with other chronic diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes. The underlying concept is that there is a disruption in healthy functioning that results in serious, harmful consequences, although treatable, that can potentially last a lifetime (NIDA, 2009). Recreational drug use usually begins in adolescents at a stage in development most vulnerable to executive functioning impairment. Executive functioning impacts decision making, judgments, and emotional regulation. Brown, et al. (2008) found an increase in drinking during the age span between 16 to 20 years that fuels neurological damage and social impairments. Beckson (2005) reported an increase in adolescent drug use. Preven tion of drug addiction needs to start during adolescents because it usually begins during this stage in development. The goal of this paper is to explore multiple factors related to the biopsychology of addiction, including the molecular level of synaptic neuron communication, neurotransmitters, brain anatomy, drugs of abuse, relapse, and long-term effects of addiction. The genetic and environmental influences along with stress play significant roles in drug addiction. Theories of addiction exist with a growing agreement among experts that the Incentive Sensitization Theory of Addiction provides the best explanation. Robinson and Berridge (2003) describe several theories. Opponent Process Theory of Addiction The first theory described by Robinson and Berridge (2003), is the Opponent Process Theory of Addiction representing the traditional view of addiction. Pinel (2009) refers to this theory as the Physical-dependence Theories of Addiction. Initially drugs are taken for the positive feelings, but gradually build tolerance and dependence to the drug. Withdrawal symptoms begin and compulsive drug cravings take over. Drug use continues in an effort to avoid negative withdrawal symptoms and achieve the pleasurable effects again. Other names for this traditional theory of addiction include pleasure-pain, positive-negative reinforcement, opponent process, hedonic homeostasis, hedonic dysregulation, and reward allostasis (Robinson Berridge, 2003). Limitations exist with this theory because not all drugs, such as heroin, produce serious withdrawal symptoms. A major argument against this theory is that after a period of abstinence the rate of relapse remains high despite the lack of withdrawal s ymptoms. Positive-incentive Theory of Addiction Another theory described by Robinson and Berridge (2003) involves aberrant learning suggesting that drugs create a strong connection to natural reward centers based on learning through classical conditioning. Pinel (2009) refers to this theory as the Positive-incentive theories of drug addiction. Explicit learning as a subcategory of aberrant learning describes the learning process through declarative associations at a conscious level between actions and outcome. Explicit learning also involves the declarative predictive relationships between environmental cues and expectation or anticipation of rewards, such as drugs. Declarative learning does not sufficiently explain the transition from recreational drug use to drug addiction. Addicts do not report exaggerated declarative memories or expectations of drug pleasure because they know the pleasure gained is not worth the consequences suffered (Robinson and Berridge, 2003). Implicit learning as a second subcategory of aberrant learning describes the unconscious procedural learning that occurs automatically by pairing a stimulus and response. Drug use becomes an automatic response through the corticostriatal loops operating through the dorsal striatum (Robinson Berridge, 2003). The aberrant learning theory does not hold up under scrutiny either because implicit learning does not actually generate an automatic response, such as tying your shoe, because it is compulsion that motivates the continuation of drug use and drives the cycle of addiction. Incentive Sensitization Theory of Addiction The Incentive Sensitization Theory of Addiction best explains the transition from drug use to drug addiction. According to Robinson and Berridge (2008), the theory states that repeated drug use changes brain cells and brain neural circuitry creating a hypersensitivity to repeated drug use and associated drug cues. Incentive sensitization generates a pathological motivation or wanting of drugs that last for years, even after abstinence. The wanting of drugs may be implicit by an unconscious wanting or explicit by a conscious craving. The addicts focus on drugs is created from an interaction between incentive salience mechanisms with associated learning mechanisms. Pathological motivation generated from sensitization of brain circuits stems from a Pavlovian conditioned incentive or motivational process, known as incentive sensitization. Associative learning can trigger the motivation for drugs through incentive attributes, such as within the context of associated drug experiences and i nteractions. The pathological motivation drives the addict to seek and obtain drugs at any cost. However, the stimulus-response learned association does not fully explain the core problem of addiction. Damage or dysfunction in cortical regions creates changes in executive functioning resulting in impairments. These impairments play an important role in the addicts poor choices about drugs coupled with pathological incentive motivation for drugs triggered through incentive sensitization. Sensitization specifically refers to the increase in drug effect caused by repeated drug use. Incentive sensitization is essence of the theory. Engagement of brain incentive or reward systems, include the mesotelencephalic dopamine systems. It is the hypersensitivity in the motivation circuitry that contributes mostly to the addictive wanting of drugs. Evidence in favor of the incentive sensitization from past studies includes three features of incentive stimulus: Pavlovian conditioned approach to behavior, Pavlovian instrumental transfers, and conditioned reinforcement. The sensitization related changes in the brain are important for the transition from casual to compulsive drug use. Changes in the brain include a much larger increase in the density of dendritic spines on medium spiny neurons in the core of the nucleus accumbens. It relates to development of psychomotor sensitization. Studies further indicate that the neural changes underlying sensitization may be sufficient to promote subsequent addict-like behaviors. The essential factor in addiction is neural sensitization. Nature versus Nurture On the one hand, a genetic predisposition toward drug addiction appears evident for a substantial number of individuals. Researchers are continuing to identify specific genes related to drug addiction. The use of Quantitative Trait Locus Mapping contributes to identify specific genes for the risk and protection against addictive behavior (Crabbe, 2002). On the other hand, the learning hypothesis suggest drugs promote the learning of strong stimulus-response habits leading to compulsive behavior paired with rituals involved in consuming drugs (Robinson Berridge, 2008). Associative learning occurs in drug addiction through Pavlovian conditioning. The motivation for drugs becomes incentive sensitive when encountering familiar associations within the context and surrounding of the drug use, friends, location, and the like. Churchland (2004) argues that everything we know is the result of both our genetic makeup and our environmental experiences. Science has shown that development depends upon both genes and experience. Genes produce the hardware and experience provides the software. Learning occurs through genetic unfolding that generates changes in cells through memory systems of learning experiences constructed from environmental experiences. Our brain neuromodulators act upon synapses and become strengthened with repeated exposure that provides the foundation for learning. According to Kranzler and Li (2008) drug addiction stems from a combination of genetic, environmental, social, and psychological factors. The study of addiction involves multiple disciplines, including neuroscience, epidemiology, genetics, molecular biology, pharmacology, psychology, psychiatry, and sociology. It is not a matter of nature versus nurture, but more accurately nature and nurture. It is well known that addiction stems from a genetic predisposition and environmental stress and influences. Li, Mao, and Wei (2008) report that an estimated 40% to 60% of genetic factors appear responsible for drug addiction and the remaining percentage of factors relate to environmental factors. Genes and common pathways appear to underlie drug addictions. In a study conducted by Li, Mao, and Wei (2008), an extensive review of the genetic research associated with drug addiction resulted in the creation of the Knowledgebase of Addiction-Related Genes (KARG). The KARG is the first database of a bioinformatic compilation of genetic research on addiction. Through statistical analysis of the database, the authors found five common pathways in addiction, including neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, long-term potentiation, GnRH signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, and Gap junctions. Advances in science from the use of new technology, such as tillingarray and proteomics, provid e new avenues in studying the underlying pathways and genetic composition of addiction and how addiction forms from environmental influences. Brain Communication Chemical messengers called neurotransmitters carry information across tiny spaces, called synapses that exist between neurons (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberts, 2008). The brain communicates through electrical and chemical signals transmitted from neuron to neuron. A neuron represents the brains communication network. A neurotransmitter is released from one neuron into the synapse within 20 to 50 nanometers of the receiving neuron (Lovinger, 2008). The releasing neuron is referred to as presynaptic neuron and has at the tip of its axon terminals small pockets known as vesicles. These vesicles contain neurotransmitters that release molecules when activated by the action potential stimulated by the presynaptic neuron. The neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic gap between the two neurons. The post-synaptic neuron receives the neurotransmitter and binds it to the receptor site. According to Lovinger (2008) two major categories of neurotransmitter receptors, include the ligand-gated ion channel (LGIC) receptors and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). The LGIC produces an excitatory or an inhibitory reaction depending on the action potential. The GPCRs represent proteins that bind neurotransmitter molecules and activate intercellular reactions. Once the neurotransmitter is released it becomes rapidly removed by neurotransmitter transporters. The neurotransmitter transporters are housed on the surface of the neurons cell membrane and rapidly retrieve the neurotransmitter pulling it inside the neuron. The uptake reloads the neurotransmitter into vesicles and the cycle repeats. Other brain chemicals exist, such as neurotrophins and steroid hormones. Lovington (2008) describes neurotrophins as peptides or amino acids secreted from different neuron structures, such as axon terminals and dendrites. Neurotrophins support neurons and assist in synaptic plasticity and neuron survival. Many are located within the central nervous system and the neural mechanisms that contribute to addiction (Lovinger, 2008). Steroid hormones represent small molecules that assist with intercellular communication. These hormones are found throughout the central nervous system as well. Lovinger (2008) further describes agonist as molecules that bind to and activate receptors. Antagonists also bind to neurotransmitter receptor sites by competing and blocking receptor activation. Many molecules serve as neurotransmitters, such as the amino acids, glutamate, and glycine. Histamines and different peptides also act as neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters play a significant role in addiction. Neurotransmitters Fitzell (2007) defines neurotransmitters as molecules in the brain that transmit chemical reactions in order for neural communication to occur. There are approximately 100 billons neurons in the brain. Neurons release neurotransmitters from one neuron to the next via a presynapitc nerve terminal and receptor site at the synapse. The releasing of a neurotransmitter either triggers a message to other neurons in a chain reaction or a message to disengage signals. There are several neurotransmitters that activate specific receptors site referred to as fitting a key into a lock (Fitzell, 2007). The neurotransmitters include noradrenaline (norepinephrine), and adrenaline (epinephrine), acetylcholine, GABA, glutamate, dopamine, serotonin, opioids and other peptides, and endocannbinoids. Endorphins and enkephalins produce natural opiates in the brain related to intense pleasure. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) has a stimulating effect on the brain. It is responsible for regulating the heart, breathing, body temperature, and blood pressure. It also may play a role in hallucinations and depression (Fitzell, 2007). Adrenaline (epinephrine) controls paranoia and the fight-or-flight response. It is also responsible for our appetite and feelings of thirst (Fitzell, 2007). Acetylcholine is responsible for muscle coordination, nerve cells, memory, and is involved in the transmission of nerve impulses in the body (Fitzell, 2007). It has a significant role in reaction to stress. GABA is found throughout the brain and in numerous sensory neurons (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). It functions as a regulator of transmitting nerve signals, and it acts on receptor sites, including GPCR, by functioning as an inhibitor. Activation of the receptor sites prohibit the release of neurotransmitters. Ethanol acts as an excitatory for the release of GABA and has a role in alcohol intoxication and contributes to the brains hyperexcitable during alcohol withdrawal. Opiods, cannabinoids, and alcohol all act on GABA through the same brain regions. Glutamate functions as a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the lower brain region (Clapp, Bhave, Hoffman, 2008). It serves most brain neurons and is found throughout the brain. Two receptors, AMPA and NMDA, appear to be involved in learning and memory. Acute alcohol consumption inhibits the release of glutamate and appears to play a role in inhibiting synaptic plasticity and impairment of memory (Lovinger, 2008). Gass and Olive (2008) studied glutamates influence on drug addiction. Studies found that all drugs of abuse utilize glutamate transmissions producing a long-term neuroplasticity in the brain. Glutamate contributes to compulsive drug-seeking behavior and drug-associated memories. Dopamine serves as the most significant neurotransmitter in the brain. It is responsible for controlling our moods, energy, and feelings of pleasure (Fizell, 2007). Dopamine influences brain mechanisms of reward, evaluation of environmental stimuli, general behavioral activity level, and some brain disorders. According to Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, and Roberto (2008), dopamine becomes pervasive throughout the brain and is produced by only a few neurons. It is considered a pure neuromodulator because it becomes activated only by GPCRs. There are five dopamine receptor sites, D1 through D5. Half of the neurons connect to the substantia nigra pars reticulate forming the direct pathway to activating the cortex (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). The other half connect to the globus pallidus internal segmane forming the indirect pathway to slow down cortical output. Dopamine controls performance of action, including the intoxication from alcohol and other drugs (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). Many drugs target dopamine transmission, and dopamine plays a significant role with all drugs. Cocaine, amphetamine and other stimulant drugs either block or reverse the action of the dopamine transporter (Lovington, 2008). As a result, the level of dopamine in the synapse increases. Research shows that interference with dopamine transmission generates an intoxicating and addictive effect with drugs and alcohol Nicotine and alcohol stimulate dopamine. Morphine and other opiates slow GABA activity and indirectly increase the activity of dopamine. It also contributes to learning environmental cues in relation to the context of drug use that encourages drug and alcohol use. Fitzell (2007) describes serotonins role in the brain as relating to the five senses, sleep, aggressive behavior, eating, and hunger. Its release brings about a sense of calm, happiness, peace, satisfaction, signals of fullness, and reduced appetite. A decrease of serotonin or blockage in the brain cells results in aggression and violent behavior. Low levels of serotonin are associated with depression and increased appetite. Serotonin is a very powerful mood enhancer and appetite regulator located in the base of the brain (Fitzell, 2007). According to Lovinger (2008), neurons connect to other neurons through the central nervous system, including the cerebral cortex and other forebrain structures. Serotonin influences sensations related to environmental stimuli, perception, learning and memory, and sleep and mood. Serotonin activity involves 15 CPCRs that either increase or decrease neuron output. It is the target of psychoactive drugs, such as LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin that serve as agonists of serotonin. Amphetamines, such as MDMA also known as ecstasy, interfere with serotonin transporters and increase serotonin levels. It is suspected that the effect may result in sensory-enhanced effects. Alcohol appears to cause a reduction of serotonin uptake. Opioids and other peptides contribute to the brains communication by decreasing excitatory glutamate and inhibitory GABA at the cell level (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). However, GABA continues to have an excitatory effect throughout the brain producing the pain-relieving effect of opioids as well as opioid dependence. Peptides help neuromodulation of the brain through GPCRs. These peptides serve as agonists to receptor sites for morphine, heroine, and other opiate drugs (Lovington, 2008). Three opiate receptors of importance include mu-type, delta-type, and kappa-type (Befort, et al., 2008). Reduction in opioid peptide actions interfere with promoting an increase in dopamine. Lovinger (2008) describes another hormone of particular importance, the corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH communicates signals of stress, mood, and changes in bodily functions. CRH and its receptors play a role in stress, drug addiction, and relapse. The opioid peptides, endorphins, and enk ephalins affect mood, produce intense feelings of pleasure, and can reduce and relieve pain. Endorphins also help in managing stress. Enkephalins help the body fight pain (Fitzell, 2007). Wand (2008) describes a the stress response as involving a glucocorticoid response generated from the hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal (HPA), activation of peptides corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), and activation of the sympathetic nervous system releasing epinephrine and nonrepinephrine. Endocannabinoids (endogenously formed cannabinoids) and other lipid-derived neuromodulators are involved in synaptic communication and acute reinforcing effects of drugs (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). Lovinger (2008) describes the receptor site CB1 linked to GPCR as functioning to inhibit the release of neurotransmitters. CB1 acts as agonists and influences both inhibitory and excitatory synaptic transmissions (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). As a result, a decrease in several neurotransmitters occurs, including GABA and glutamate. A long-term synaptic depression may occur produced by retrograde endocannabinoid signaling. A consequence of this occurrence plays a key role in learning and memory and associated addiction (Lovinger, 2008). Brain Anatomy of Addiction The brain attempts to counteract the chemical changes caused by drug addiction. The process of neuroadaption or neuromodulation strives to reinstate homeostasis in the brain. Drug addiction influences all aspects of the brain with several significant regions serving more dominant roles. The mesotelencephalic dopamine system is a diffuse pathway consisting of dopamine neurons associated with pleasure (Pinel, 1998). Its cell bodies are connected to two structures in the midbrain tegmentum: substantia nigra or the ventral tegmental area. The axons of these two structures extend into different structures in the telencephalic sites. These structures include frontal cortex, striatum, septum, cingulated cortex, amygdala, and nucleus accumbens. The mesotelencephalic dopamine system is associated with motivation of behaviors and self-administering addictive drugs, sexual behavior, and eating (Pinel, 1998) The substania nigra is a midbrain nucleus of the tegmentum and contains cell bodies of many of the neurons of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system. Its dopaminergic neurons terminate in the striatum (Pinel, 1998). The nigrostriatal pathway is a dopaminergic tract from the substantia nigra to the striatum. The striatum is composed of the caudate and putamen and serves as the terminal of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway. The ventral tegmental area is located medial to the substania nigra and contains cell body of many neurons in the mesotelecephalic dopamine system (Pinel, 1998). The nucleus accumbens is a nucleus located between the striatum and the basal forebrain. It is a major terminal in the mesotelencephalic dopamine system. It plays a critical role in the experience of pleasure (Pinel, 1998). Koob and Simon (2009) indicate that the mesocorticolimbic pathway is the brain circuit that transmits dopamine in the rewarding effects of alcohol and other drugs. The mesocorticolimbic dopamine system represents the reward system in the brain. Neural inputs and outputs interact with the dopamine projections from the ventral tegmental area to the basal forebrain (Koob Simon, 2009; Ikemoto, 2007). Pinel (1998) describes the prefrontal cortex as the large area of the frontal cortex anterior to the primary and secondary motor cortex. It consists of three large areas: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex (Pinel, 1998). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is the large area on the lateral surface of the prefrontal lobes and plays a role in memory for temporal sequence of events but not the actual events, response sequencing, inhibiting incorrect but previously correct responses, developing and following plans of action, and creative thinking. Pinel (1998), indicates that the orbitofrontal cortex is the large area of prefrontal cortex on its anterior pole and inferior surface. Damage to the orbitofrontal cortex results in marked personality changes, an inability to inhibit inappropriate behaviors, and influences social behaviors. The medial prefrontal cortex is the area of the prefrontal cortex on the medial surface of the prefrontal lobe s that when damaged, produces a blunting affect (Pinel, 1998). Amygdala is a major structure in the limbic system. It is an almond-shaped nucleus of the anterior temporal lobe. The central nucleus of the amygdala has the highest density of enkephalins. Enkephalins are found in the cell bodies of GABA neurons, the most abundant type of neuron in the nucleus of the amygdala (Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, Roberto, 2008). The amygdala is responsible for the fight or flight emotional reaction. The extended amygdala signifies brain structures located near the front of the lower brain region, referred to as the basal forebrain (Befort, et al.). The extended amygdala is comprised of a number of structures, including the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), and the bed nucleus of stria terminals (BNST). It plays a role in relation to the acute reinforcing effects of drugs and the negative effects of compulsive drug use and reward. The CeA consists mostly of GABA as inhibitory neurons with neuron connections or project to the brainstem or BNST. It is considered the gate that controls information through the intra-amygdaloidal circuits. Befort, et al. (2008) describes the central extended amygdala (EAc) as a network formed by the central amygdala and the BNST controls. It plays a significant role in drug cravings, drug-seeking behaviors, drug rewards, and drug dependence. Hippocampus is the allocortical limbic system structure of the medial temporal lobes and extends from the amygdala at its anterior end to the cingulated cortex and fornix at itsposterior end (Pinel, 1998). The basolateral amygdala mediates motivational effects of drug use and the context associated with drug use in forming emotional memories (Koob, 2009). It plays a major role in learning and memory, particularly in relation to associated drug behaviors. Feltenstein and See (2008) provide a depiction of the brain anatomy and drug related connections in the mesocorticolimbic system. Dopamine projects from cell bodies in the VTA and connect to limbic structures via the mesolimbic pathway (amaygdala, ventral pallidum, hippocampus, and NAcc, and cortical areas (mesocortical pathway, including the prefrontal cortex, the orbitofrontal cortex, and the anterior cingulated gyrus) (Feltenstein See, 2008); Ikemoto, 2007). The NAcc and ventral pallidum serve as the primary effects of drug abuse. The amygdala and hippocampus serve a role in learning as it relates to the process of addiction. The amygdala and ventral hippocampus impact learning in discrete stimulus-response associations. The amygdala and dorsal hippocampus impact learning through stimulus-to-stimulus associations important in contextual learning. The prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate gyrus regulate emotional responses, cognitive control, and executive functioning (Feltenstein See, 2008). Feltenstein See (2008) further indicated that repeated drug exposure leads to neuroadaptions at the cellular level of the prefrontal NAcc glutamatergic pathway that contributes to the persistent addictive behaviors, including diminished cognitive control and hyper-responsiveness to drug-associated stimuli. The mesolimbic pathway is involved in the acute reinforcing effects of drugs and various conditioned responses related to drug cravings and relapse. Cycle of Addiction Drug addiction forms through progressive stages of drug use, impulsivity, and compulsion. Addiction begins with the choice to use drugs for a variety of reasons, such as peer pressure or curiosity; however not everyone who uses drugs develop an addiction. As the drug begins to change neuron interactions, the brain develops neuroadaptive reactions to the drugs invasion. Drug use gradually shifts from recreational drug use to a compulsive drug need based on changes in the brain circuitry. Everitt, et al. (2008) discovered that low levels of dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens predict the propensity to escalate cocaine intake and the shift to compulsive drug-seeking and drug addiction. Kobb (2009) describes three stages of addiction: preoccupation/anticipation, binge intoxication, and withdrawal/negative effect. The three stages feed into each other, become intensified over time, and shift from positive reinforcement to negative reinforcement (Kobb, 2009). Drug use starts with experimentation and enjoying the pleasurable attributes of the drug. In time the addict focuses more on obtaining and using drugs that begins to shift impulsivity to tolerance and cravings in the drug relationship. As the drug begins to control the addict, the positive emotions begin to shift to negative emotions. The addict requires continued use of the drug in order to avoid negative reinforcement and to achieve positive reinforcement. The addict shifts into a compulsive need for the drug. According to Koob and Simon (2009), the binge/intoxication stage of addiction involves the nucleus accumbens-amygdala reward system, dopamine inputs from the ventral tegmental area, local opioid peptide circuits, and opioid peptide inputs in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. The stage of negative withdrawal involves a decrease in function of the reward system and the brain stress neurocircuitry. The preoccupation/anticipation (craving) stage involves key afferent projections to the extended amygdala and nucleus accumbens, specifically the prefrontal cortex (for drug-induced reinstatement), and the basolateral amygdala (for cue-induced reinstatement). Compulsvie drug-seeking behavior appears driven by ventral striatal-ventral pallidalthalamic-cortical loops. In particular, the orbitofrontal cortex in the prefrontal cortex area influences impulsivity and compulsivity in drug addiction (Torregrossa, Quinn, Taylor, 2008). It is also critical in decision making and response selection. The orbitofrontal cortex influences impulsivity in three specific ways: delaying gratification, inability to inhibit strengthened motor responses, and an inability to reflect on potential consequences of action (Torregrossa, Quinn, Taylor, 2008). Schoenbaum and Shaham (2008) concur with the concept of an altered orbitofrontal cortex in drug addicts with a lasting decline in plasticity or the ability to encode new information. Drugs Classifications Commonly Abused Drugs commonly abused change the brains chemistry by interfering with the neurotransmitters and receptor sites. Different classes of drugs appear to affect different receptors either through overproducing a neurotransmitter or blocking the production of a neurotransmitter. All drugs of abuse share enhancement in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine activity, although at different levels. Depressants Ethanol is the primary drug in alcochol. It changes serotonin levels, and acts as a substitute for endorphins. According to Frezell (2007), behaviors that occur when under the influence of the drug include sleepiness, possible violence or aggression, depression, and a dulling of psychological pain. After the effect of alcohol wears off, sleep disturbance, depression, lack of endorphins to relieve normal pain, and cravings for more alcohol occur in reaction to the brains reduction in producing endorphins. Cruz, Bajo, Schweitzer, and Roberto (2008), indicate that alcohol increases the inhibitory effect of GABA and decreases the excitatory action of glutamate. GABA is involved with the intoxication effects of alcohol and the long-term effects, including tolerance and dependence. The CeA adapts to the changes as alcohol dependence forms. Feltenstein and See (2008) indicate that ethanol interacts with a wide variety o

Singlish And Its Discourse Particles English Language Essay

Singlish And Its Discourse Particles English Language Essay Singapore Colloquial English or more fondly known as Singlish contains a number of pragmatic particles that have come under much scrutiny and discussion over the years. These particles have received much attention, and become a distinctive representation of Singlish. Many studies have been done over the years on the use and functions of these particles (Platt 1987; Platt and Ho 1989; Wong, 2004; Gupta, 2006; Lim 2007, 2011). Much work and research have been done on the classification, history, origins and reasons for the emergence of these particles in the use of Singlish (Lim 2007, Gupta 1992). Gupta (1992) proposed a scale of assertiveness of which eleven SCE particles could be placed on in terms of different degrees of assertiveness. Wee (2002) however, took a different stance, and sought to highlight and substantiate the development and possible evolution of Singlish particles in his analysis of the particle lor using the grammaticalisation framework developed by Traugott (1982, 1988, 1989). Platt (1987: 392) gave a more simplified explanation on the function of these pragmatic particles, and claimed that in a sentence, these pragmatic particles convey additional meaning over and above that expressed by the rest of the utterance. This meant t hat a particle holds by itself independent meaning, and when different particles are attached to an utterance, it would produce different meanings. Lee (2007: 2) illustrated this point by using the following example (1): (1) a. I want to drink mah. b. I want to drink lah. c. I want to drink leh. d. I want to drink lor. e. I want to drink hor. f. I want to drink a. In this example, the head clause of I want to drink does not change. According to Lee (2007: 2), the clause-final particles are syntactically and semantically optional, as their omission affects neither the grammaticality nor the basic meaning of the matrix clause. Therefore in SCE, each clause would possess a different meaning and communicative function by virtue of the clause-final particle attached to it. For example in 1(a), mah performs what Gupta (1992: 43) calls a contradictory function. By adding mah, the clause would suggest that it is a contradictory response to a prior utterance, by presenting what is being said as an absolute and obvious fact. In contrast, while lor in 1(d) can perform a similar function to mah of presenting what is being said as an obvious fact, it generates and encompasses other different meanings. According to Guptas (1992: 43) definition again, the central function of the more mildly assertive lo is to mark a directive or to create a suggestion. In my opinion, the point that Gupta makes about a particle having a central function is not necessarily accurate, as a particles usage is based on users preferences and choices, and not based entirely on the effectiveness of a particle in an utterance as suggested by Gupta in her allocating of a primary serving function to the particles. Going back to the main point, 1(d) can now mean that the speaker is suggesti ng an activity (to drink), probably in response to a question such as What do you want to do there?. Thus, it is clearly evident that these particles can change the entire meaning of an utterance. 1.2 Tone in SCE Pragmatic Particles However, the interesting thing about these pragmatic particles is that they, individually, possess many tonal variants. Guptas suggestion that the particles have a central function also reflects the evidence that these particles have multiple meanings and functions. Taking the much studied particle lah for example, Loke and Low (1988) identified a total of nine tonal variants of lah, classifying them into three major groups termed high, mid or low. However there is a general lack of agreement in terms of recognising the tonal quality of particles. There have been studies that suggest the alternative view is true (Detarding, 1994), and that a particle, especially when sentence final, functions as the carrier of the intonation contour of the utterance (Gupta, 1992). This disagreement meant the number of different particles lah remain a mystery (Wong, 2004: 760). However, what is clear from this is that it is very possible for a particle to have at least two different meanings and funct ions which some have argued, is differentiated by tone. Focus has tended to be placed more on Singlish particles as a group, rather than dissecting their various meanings and grammaticality individually. While there is now growing attention and research done in analysing individual Singlish particles (Wee, 2002, 2003; Wong, 2005; Lee, 2007), data and analysis are still lacking in terms of quantity. In this paper I will focus on the particle leh, which is sometimes also written as lei. However, while I am of the view that pragmatic particles in SCE do possess tonal variants, I would like to challenge the notion that the different meanings and functions leh can be categorised into just tonal variants (Lee, 2007), and I argue that there are actually two different particles in leh, which possess tonal variants of their own. This is a significant distinction because these two particles of leh, can be produced with the same tone, yet their meanings differ. I also seek to add on and complement previous research in this area of study. 2. Neglected variant of leh 2.1 Unpopular leh? Leh is seemingly a less frequently used particle, and Wong (2004) suggests that less popular particles such as leh as compared to particles such as lah could be less popular due to it lacking certain components that allow users to express their cultural norms of interaction in everyday speech (2004: 764). In fact, an analysis of the ICE-SIN corpus (containing about 600,000 words) showed leh to be the third least commonly used particle out of 10 particles selected (Ler, 2005). The particles seemingly low occurrence in Singlish utterances and conversations could also be one of the reasons for a lack of attention and research in this area. 2.2 /lɆº/ and /le/ It is notable, and also the central point of focus in this paper, that leh exists in more than one form. By form, it is meant that leh possesses a different version of itself which differs in not just tone, but pronunciation, and also in meaning. When the particle leh is mentioned, the typical representation of it is that of /le/. In this paper, I seek to bring added attention to its heteronym, /lɆº/. It must also be added that within the two separate versions of leh, different meanings and forms of usage can be derived as well, depending on context. Studies in the past have typically mentioned or focused simply on the /le/ version of leh, failing to distinguish the difference between the two versions (Gupta 1992, 1994; Lim, 2004, 2007). Even when the difference in function and meaning is noticed and investigated, a distinction between them fails to be made (Lee, 2007), thus hampering further analysis of /lɆº/ as a separate particle. I contest that previous assumptions are incorrect, and will seek to show the marked distinction in the usage of /le/ and /lɆº/ in this paper. I believe one of the main contributing factors for the lack of distinction of these two different particles, is due to them having an entirely similar Romanised form of leh. I have mentioned earlier that these two particles function as heteronyms. Due to the fact that they have identical Romanised forms, and tone is often not encapsulated in a Romanised script, it breeds a sense of the two particles being the same. While they do share certain traits in terms of meaning, I would like to prove in this study that the range of their meanings would point to them being separate, independent particles. It is also worth noting that the fact that little attention has been paid to the /lɆº/ form of leh could possibly be attributed to it being a somewhat recent development. As mentioned by Lim (2011: 13), Singlish is capable of displaying a continuum of possibilities in prosodic phonology, of more mesolectal and more basilectal features, and Singlish may in fact be viewed as changing, in the more Sinitic-dominant ecology of the recent era, to display more Sinitic features. It is thus worth hypothesising that change had possibly occurred to the particle itself, in the process changing its pronunciation and range of attitudes conveyed. This however, will not be the main focus of the paper. 3. Previous Studies 3.1 Gupta (1992), and Lees (2007) arguments against Gupta (1992) Gupta (1992) analysed a total of 11 different particles in Singlish, and categorised them on a scale of assertiveness. Guptas claim is that these particles can be marked as belonging to three main categories of contradictory, assertive and tentative. According to her, contradictory particles are used in cases where there is an explicit contradiction to something that had been previously said. In her terms, these particles are maximally assertive. Next down the scale is the assertive group, this group consists of particles which express speakers positive commitment (Gupta, 1992: 37) to a particular utterance. Finally, there is the minimally assertive tentative group. Particles in this group present a less positive commitment as compared to the assertive group. Guptas attempt to categorise these particles on a scale of assertiveness have met with some contention and disagreement (Wee, 2002; Wong, 2004). In particular her choice of labelling Singlish particles as being assertive in nature has been challenged, and Wong (2004) suggests that this classification displays an ethnocentric view in that Gupta is taking an Anglo cultural perspective (Wong, 2004: 752). Moreover, I will not be dealing with the contention surrounding Guptas scale of assertiveness in this paper. Gupta (1992) also included a non-pragmatic classification of leh (appears as lei in Guptas paper), which she lists as being used in x-interrogatives which do not have a wh-word, and recaptures a contextually understood antecedent x (Gupta, 1992: 36). This version of leh in question is classified as a high-level tone leh (Platt 1987; Platt and Ho, 1989), and Gupta claims in this way, leh can be translated as What about? when used as a question particle. This is a view first mentioned by Platt (1987), but is not an accurate analysis of the particle. As mentioned by Lee (2007), this translation cannot adequately capture the meaning of every occurrence of leh. As with many other pragmatic particles in SCE, contextual factors play a huge role in the interpretation of the meaning of the particle. While leh can carry the meaning of What about?, it is by no means restricted to such a definition. Lee (2007) takes issue with this particular definition of the question particle leh, and tried to explain how What about? cannot be used in certain contexts with question particle leh. I list out two examples he used to illustrate his point: Lee (2007) (2) A: Everyones here. Lets go. B: Wait. Siew Lian leh? (3) A: Alan will wipe the tables, and John will sweep the floor. B: Then Siew Lian leh? Lee (2007) claims that in (2), the utterance with leh should be Wait. Where is Siew Lian?, and in (3) it would then take the suggested translation of What about?. He goes on to say that this is proof of how high-level tone leh does not necessarily carry the meaning of What about?. What he is trying to explain is that how an utterance is shaped with the use of leh will be shaped by the context of which it is used in. I agree with this view, however, I disagree with how he illustrates his point. This is because in trying to argue for the flexibility of high-level tone leh, he has neglected to acknowledge a similar flexibility in terms of meaning for What about? as well. For example in (2), Wait. What about Siew Lian? can still be construed and understood as a question asking for the whereabouts of Siew Lian. It does not necessarily have to be framed as an explicit question demanding for the whereabouts or location of Siew Lian in Where is Siew Lian. The converse is true for (3), and we can flip Lees (2007) claim against himself by showing that what about Siew Lian could also be translated explicitly as Then what would Siew Lians duties be?. Thus, similar to high-level tone leh as a question particle, What about? is also dependent on context. This can be further illustrated in the following: (4) A: We will all be going to the party at 10. B: What about Tim? Bs utterance can be understood as asking whether Tim would be going to the party as well. However, supposing Tim has fallen very sick and needs someone to be by his bedside. Both A and B know it would be near impossible for Tim to go to the party, and the most immediate concern would be having someone look after Tim. In this case, Bs utterance would be taken to be asking Then whos going to take care of Tim?. Thus, we can see that What about? functions similarly with high-level tone leh in that they depend upon contextual factors for a correct interpretation. As such, Lees (2007) usage of a narrow definition of What about? as an argument is not conclusive evidence for the incorrectness of this definition for high-level tone leh. However, this is where the similarities between them end. Using the following example: (5) A: If Sam comes tonight, we can finish. B: Then he dont come leh? In (5), What about? cannot be used anymore. In such a scenario, What if would be more appropriate, as in What if he doesnt come?. What if and what about have markedly different meanings, and while we will not delve deep into their range of meanings and functions, it can be agreed that they do not carry the same meaning. As we can see then, high-level tone leh can be used more than as What about?. As such, it is incorrect as suggested by Platt (1987) and Platt and Ho (1989) to translate high-level tone leh as simply What about?. While leh in this form can possess such a meaning, it does not necessarily always translate to such a definition. Gupta (1992) also included the maximally assertive leh, and claims that both declaratives and imperatives with leh frequently, but not always, function as directives (1992: 42). She also manages to recognise and identify the /lɆº/ form of leh when she used the following data: (6) [YG finds passing-out parade picture] YG: Soldier is like that one leh? [high rise] AG: Yes She stated that in (6), it meant the statement with leh was made with an expression of surprise. In her words in such a case, the speaker makes an observation, of which there is no doubt, but which is unexpected (Gupta, 1992: 42). This is different from leh the question particle, and leh the assertive particle which she identifies in her paper. Despite identifying this, she fails to distinguish the difference between /lɆº/ and /le/, and treats it as a deviation of the meaning of leh as a result of context, rather than see it as a separate particle. Lee (2007: 6) brings up another point of contention when he suggests this example is a case of misguided induction, caused by the inadvertent use of an isolated example. He goes on to say this is most likely a performance error, whereby the particle is being misused, and claims this is typically unacceptable to a native SCE speaker. First of all, it is not clear as to which pronunciation of leh Gupta is referring to in her excerpt. If the version of leh used is /le/, then indeed the particle does seem out of place in the utterance. In this case, I would agree with Lee that there is a performance error. However, supposing the /lɆº/ version is the one used by the speaker, there would be nothing wrong at all, and it is definitely acceptable. As I will show further in the study, there are examples of native SCE speakers reproducing this leh in other instances. Lee (2007: 6) also continues and suggests the use of the particle meh instead in place of leh as being more appropriate. This is highly incorrect, as this would give the utterance an entirely different meaning. Since this study does not concern the study of meh, I will not dwell on this issue. Moreover, this confusion highlights one of the problems of not distinguishing clearly the two different particles of leh /lɆº/ and /le/. The fact that one of the variants of leh would be out of place in a utterance that would be appropriate with the other, further supports the argument that these two should be treated as two different, separate particles. 3.2 Wee (2004) Wee (2004) in his paper included a different function of leh. He suggests that leh marks an assertion or request as being tentative, and therefore working as a pragmatic softener (2004: 122). In his analysis, Wee (2004) used an excerpt from the GSSEC to display such a softening function: (7) A: Actually†¦ come to think about it actually, er, this movie speaks very badly about men leh. According to Wee (2004), leh softens the opinion that A makes, and signifies that it is a weak opinion, therefore explaining the speakers hesitance and sheepishness in making the statement. However, it is not clear what version of leh the speaker used. In fact, both /lɆº/ and /le/ can be used in such in instance without affecting Wees interpretation. Despite this, I argue that /lɆº/ and /le/ exhibit different states of minds and attitudes of the speaker, and as such cannot be used interchangeably. Both versions exhibit a softening function, however to different degrees. When /lɆº/ is used, it suggests more assertion rather than softening, and the opinion is more forceful than when /le/ is used. For this reason, it is assumed that the /le/ version is the one Wee (2004) is referring to. Wee (2004:122) also used the following: (8) (A and B are talking about a movie) A: But so few people lah, maybe because it has been running for quite some time lah. B: Actually two weeks only leh. Wee again uses this as an example of leh acting as a softener. Once again, it is not clear which leh is used. In this example, if /lɆº/ is used, the assertion of it being two weeks only is much more forceful than that of /le/. It further goes to show how these two particles should be defined properly. I will address the issue of leh being used as a softener later in this paper. 3.3 Lee (2007) Lee (2007) identifies three tonal variants of leh in his paper, and suggests that each particle has its own pragmatic function realised in specific speech contexts. He claims they can be realised in tone 1, tone3 and tone 4 of Mandarin Chinese respectively. In addition to identifying the more commonly known /le/ as leh1, Lee (2007) also correctly identifies /lɆº/ in his paper. He found two tonal variants of it leh3 and leh4. However he too, makes no mention of the differentiation in pronunciation. For the sake of discussion, we will assume that he has made the correct distinction between /lɆº/ and /le/. In marking the variants of /lɆº/, Lee (2007) categorises leh3 as being a marker of intent and leh4 as a marker of assertion. One of the functions Lee (2007) has accorded the use of leh3 is that of reporting a new state of affairs which is assumed to be beyond the addressees knowledge. However, as I will show later in the presentation of data, that this is not necessarily true. Even with speakers knowing that each other has knowledge of a particular piece of information, the particle can be used. Lee (2007) also does not fully expand the section on the usage of the leh4 variant that he calls marker of assertion. He suggests only a subtle distinction between the third of fourth tones of the particle (2007: 15). This is not true, and as data will show, leh4 can capture and reflect different meanings and attitudes of the speaker, including the suggestion of exaggerated emphasis or sarcasm. This as a result would mean more than just a subtle distinction between the two particles. 4. The different forms of leh The data used and presented in this paper have been taken from conversational interactions between Singaporeans using SCE. Because of the naturally occurring circumstances of which these data have been obtained, they are authentic instances of the use of SCE (and thus the use of the leh particles). These data would be analysed and they form the basis of presenting the different forms of leh in this paper. In Lees (2007) study, he separated leh into three different tonal variants, where within one tonal variant the particle could take on different meanings. I would take a similar approach, however I make a marked distinction between the /le/ and /lɆº/ forms of leh. The analysis would be separated into two major parts, with the first part being the more commonly known /le/ version of leh, and the second detailing the /lɆº/ of leh which I will represent with lea. 4.1 /le/ leh The /le/ leh consists of a number of variants, and I will attempt to separate them into their particular functions. 4.1.1 Leh as a Softener realised as tone 1 in Mandarin Chinese As has been categorised by Lee (2007: 7), this leh occurs in the second part of an adjacency pair, whereby the speaker is unable or unwilling to provide a preferred response with respect to a proposition introduced by the addressee in the first part of discourse. Lee calls this the dispreferred second (2007: 7). According to Yule (1996: 79), the preferred is the structurally expected next act and the dispreferred is the structurally unexpected next act. Therefore, disagreements and refusals are next acts which are unexpected. Yule (1996) has found that in English, hesitation and prefaces are used to make a response (as a dispreferred second) less challenging to the first, thereby softening an unexpected next act. In SCE, leh performs a similar function. Thus as mentioned, this leh is used by a speaker in response to something said prior that the speaker does not agree with. This does not necessarily have to be an opinion of which one can blatantly state an agreement or disagreement with, but also requests or false statements. The leh is tagged to the dispreferred second of an utterance, and thus performs a function of softening the blow of an unexpected next act. (9) A: Eh, later after this we go get something to eat. B: Later? I got something on leh. In (9), A is suggesting to B that they go for a meal after their current activity. However, B is unable to make it. In this instance, B is offering a refusal to As invitation. He does not refuse the invitation outright. Rather, he answers the question indirectly by stating that he has something on, which naturally would be taken to mean that he wouldnt be free for As meal invitation. This indirect refusal could be taken to be a way of making the refusal less challenging. Even so, leh is still used to further soften the refusal. Leh is able to perform this softening function because the usage of leh suggests an attitude of a willingness to compromise, or to negotiate a position whether it is an intention the speaker is trying to convey or not. For instance in (9), because the use of leh softens the unexpected next act of refusal, we see the following exchange: (10) A: Eh, later after this we go get something to eat. B: Later? I got something on leh. A: Huh? What thing? Eat lah! B: Cannot lah. The use of leh by B suggests a position of the possibility of negotiation rather than closing the door on any possibility of accepting the invitation with an outright rejection, which explains why A continued by attempting to change Bs mind and getting him to accept the invitation. B clearly did not have the intention to negotiate because he promptly put an end to As attempts to persuade by refusing the invitation outright in his second utterance. Thus, leh performs a softening function in suggesting a position of compromise and willingness to negotiate, therefore making a refusal or rejection less challenging. (11) (A and B are discussing the price of a new phone. A thinks the price is expensive, while B thinks it is a reasonable price) A: Cheap? Then you buy me one lor. B: Please leh, cheap also need money. Buy for you I might as well buy more for myself.

Essay on Janie in Their Eyes Were Watching God -- Their Eyes Were Watc

The Charater of Janie in Their Eyes Were Watching God      Ã‚  Ã‚   In Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God, Janie Crawford is the heroine. She helps women to deal with their own problems by dealing with hers. She deals with personal relationships as well as searches for self-awareness. Janie Crawford is more than a heroine, however, she is a woman who has overcome the restrictions placed on her by the oppressive forces and people in her life.    As a young woman, Janie had no complaints about her role in society and fit in as most young people do. Eventually, Janie made it her purpose to outgrow this mold, defying her societal role and fulfilling her dream of becoming the assertive woman she always wanted to be. To personalize the novel, the female perspective is introduced very early in the story. "Now, women forget all those things they don't want to remember, and remember everything they don't want to forget. The dream is the truth. Then they act and do things accordingly" (Page 1). This phrase not only explains female dreams in Janie's world, but it also foreshadows the restrictions placed upon women in that world. "They act and do things accordingly." Women are expected to comply and not fight when they are told they are not allowed to... ... Connection: Feminist Strategies in American Fiction. " Women's Studies 28.2 (1999): 185-201. Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God. New York: Perennial Classics, 1990. Interpretations: Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987. Kayano, Yoshiko. "Burden, Escape, and Nature's Role: A Study of Janie's Development in Their Eyes Were Watching God." Publications of the Mississippi Philological Association (1998): 36-44. Kubitschek, Missy Dehn. " 'Tuh de Horizon and Back': The Female Quest in Their Eyes Were Watching God." Modern Critical